SAS 1-30 p. 233 except 2,4,9,14,24,25

1. A hydrocarbon is a molecule composed only of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

3. Petroleum is a valuable resource because burning it provides nearly half of the total annual U.S. energy needs, and it is separated into simpler mixtures.

5. Crude oil varies from colorless to greenish-brown to black, and can be as fluid as water or as resistant  to flow as soft tar.

6. a. 11%
    b. 89%

7. Several fuels obtained from crude petroleum: gasoline, other petroleum-based fuels provide heat to homes and to office buildings, deliver energy to generate electricity, and power diesel engines and jet aircraft.

8. a. CDs, sports equipment, clothing, automobile parts, plastic charge cards.
    b. wool, glass, wood

10. a. Middle East has the most petroleum reserves relative to its population
      b. Western Europe has the least petroleum reserves relative to its population

11. a. Central Asia, Far East, and Oceania
      b. Western Europe

12. Density would be used to separate two liquids when the substances are insoluble in each other.

13. Acetone and water would be the easiest to separate through distillation because acetone has the lowest boiling point on the chart and water the highest.

15.

16. Fractional distillation is a process of separating a mixture into its components by boiling and condensing the components. Distillation is a process that separates liquid substances based on differences in their boiling points.

17. light: aviation and motor gasoline, naphthas and solvents, kerosene
      intermediate: gas oil, petrochemicals, heavy furnace oil
      heavy: lubricating oil and grease, heavy oils and wax, cracking stock

18. I would expect the the fraction with the highest boiling point range to be removed at the bottom of the distillation tower because it is closer to the furnace and heavy distillates and residues, are at the bottom of the tower.

19. A way to further separate the components of each fraction would be to do normal distillation.

20. 1. Methane 2. Pentane 3. Hexane 4. Octane The higher the boiling point, the more atoms are in the molecular formula.

21. A covalent bond is the sharing of two or more valence electrons between two atoms.

22. Atoms with filled outer electron shells do not form covalent bonds because valence electrons are electrons within an atom's unfilled, outer shell, so the atoms cannot bond anymore.

23. Shared electrons hold together covalent bonds because electrons are needed to fill the first shell, and both atoms achieve the stability associated with completely filled electrons shells.

26. a. A structural formula is a chemical formula showing the arrangement of atoms and covalent bonds in a molecule, in which each electron pair in covalent bond is represented by a line between the symbols of two atoms.

      b. It represents that of an actual molecule because it shows the arrangement of atoms and covalent bonds in a molecule

27.
a.
 

b.



28. The electron-dot reprsentaion of a carbon atom shows only four dots because it shows the valence electrons

29. a. C9H20
         b. C16H36
         c. C10H22
         d. C18H38

30. a. 128g
      b. 228g
      c. 142g
      d. 254g

B.8 1-6 p. 350

1. 10 kg

2. 4 liters

3. 1800 kg

4. Atmospheric CO2 has increased have increased by 30% since 1800 because of the high amount of CO2 that is being released into the air. Riverwood buses release 10 kg of carbon dioxide daily.

5. I think it will have a worldwide because Riverwood's buses aren't the only buses that are releasing a high amount of carbon dioxide daily. School buses highly contribute to CO2 pollution.

6. I think that they think it's necessary because the head of the bus company told them they had to, so the principals don't think of the environment, they just are following the directions of the people who are in charge of the buses.

B.3 1-4 p.344

1. Human exposure to ultraviolet radiation is potentially more harmful than exposure to infrared radiation because it can cause a sunburn, and with long term exposure is linked to skin cancer. If all the UV radiation reaching the atmosphere actually reached the Earth's surface, it is likely that most life on Earth would be destroyed.

2. Two essential roles played by visible solar radiation can warm up the Earth and powers the hydrologic cycle.

3. They experience wider air temperature fluctuations because there are less water molecules in the atmosphere. Also the sand and lighter surfaces reflect the light.

4. a. The average daytime temperature would be way hotter because more UV rays would hit the surface of the Earth.
    b. The average nighttime temperature would be cooler because more heat would escape.

14-20 p. 361

14. Atmospheric CO2 and water vapor help maintain moderate temperatures at Earth's surface because of the hydrologic cycle and the carbon cycle maintain stable concentrations of water and carbon dioxide in their respective reservoirs, including the atmosphere.

15. a. respiration, fossil fuels, decay, combustion

      b. decomposition product of plant and animal wastes, refining fossil fuels, raising livestock

16. a. The runaway greenhouse effect: as a greenhouse gas, increased water vapor may cause an even greater increase in global temperatures due to adsorption and the real ease of infrared radiation, which cause another upward spiral.
     b. clouds

17. This is because more CO2  is added than can be removed by natural process.

18. a.

b. 

1-8 p.360

1. Electromagnetic radiation consists of a broad range of energetic emissions. Particular types of electromagnetic radiation, represents a particular energy level that make up the electromagnetic spectrum.

2. Spectrum is a good descriptor of the types of energy found in electromagnetic radiation because spectrum means" any of various continua that resemble a color spectrum in consisting of an ordered arrangement by a particular characteristic (as frequency or energy)" Merriam Webster.

3. Visible light is useful in plant photosynthesis, while other forms of electromagnetic radiation are not because visible radiation can energize electrons in some chemical bonds. Visible light interacts with electrons in chlorophyll molecules, which provide the energy needed for photosynthesis reactions.

4. a. Types of electromagnetic radiation: infrared, ultra-violet, visible
    b. infrared radiation: causes certain bonded atoms to vibrate more energetically.
        ultraviolet radiation: can cause a sunburn, and witch ling-term exposure is linked to skin cancer.
        visible radiation: can energize electrons in some chemical bonds.

5. Ultraviolet light is often used to sterilize chemistry laboratory goggles because it can kill bacteria and destroy viruses, while visible light can energize electrons in some chemical bonds.

6. Infrared radiation is absorbed by CO2 H2O molecules in the atmosphere.
    Visible Radiation is scattered by water, air, and dust.
    Ultraviolet radiation is absorbed in the stratospheric ozone layer.

7. Solar radiation determines climates and weather, and powers the hydrologic cycle.

8. Lake water reflects more solar radiation than asphalt because it is a lighter color, and the asphalt reflects almost not solar radiation.

Retrieving Copper

CuO and HCl

Cu in the filter paper

Zinc reacting in HCl

1. a. Lots of copper (Cu) fell to the bottom beaker instead of staying in the mixture.

    b. Raise the temperature of the mixture so that more copper would dissolve in the mixture.

2. a. The amount of copper that reacted was .7 grams of Cu

    b. The percent that reacted was 30%

3. a. Cu²⁺+Zn à Cu+ Zn²⁺

    b. 

• Zinc
• Copper
• Copper
• Zinc'

4. a red copper color
    b. 

7-13 p.204

7. An alloy is a sold combination of atoms of two or more metals.

8. Two alloys I use regualry are steel and bronze. I use steel when I drive, and Bronze when I pay with coins. Steel is an alloy made of primarly iron, with carbon and small amounts of other elements. Bronze is an alloy primarily copper, with tin, zinc, and other elements.

9. Carbon is a nonmetal that is a component of both steel and stainless steel.

10. Steel: Fe3C

• Properties of steel are often determined by carbon content. High-carbon steel is hard and brittle; low-or-medium-carbon steel can be welded and shaped.
• Steel is used in automobile and airplane parts, kitchen utensils, plumbing fixtures, and architectural decoration.

11. Semiconductors are found on columns 12 and 14. They are metalloids and are mostly located on the ladder in the periodic table.

12. Three elements commonly used for doping semiconductors are phosphorous, aluminum, and arsenic.

13. The primary use of the products of semiconductor technology is that it has electrical conductivity between that of conductors and nonconductors at normal temperatures. Elements with semiconducting properties include germanium (Ge), gallium arsenide (GaAs), and cadmium sulfide (CdS).